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Translation of Word Connotations: Dutch and Japanese

The word freedom has different connotations across cultures. The concept of free­dom as described by U.S. students means "free enterprise." Dutch students tend to describe freedom as "freedom to express your feelings, to be yourself." In 1996, Russian students from western Siberia associated the word freedom primarily with "not being in prison" and secondarily with freedom from pollution and freedom of speech.

To the Japanese, freedom means "to behave as you please, to transcend the group." It is experienced as "having individual ideas, escape from spiritual bondage," which is not the same as the Western individualistic notion of freedom that serves as a basis for asserting the precedence of the individual over the group, which is not seen as desirable in Japanese society. The Japanese word used to translate the English word freedom {jiyu} is of Chinese origin. It means to behave as one pleases, without considering others, which for a collectivistic society basically means disharmony and thus is negative. As liberty and freedom in the West signify respect for the human being, the concept has become ambiguous, to say the least, to the Japanese.

The Rokeach value "a comfortable life" is linked with material prosperity. To the Japanese it means to be rich, not in money, but spiritually, to be without fear, have stability, no change, good relations, a good house. In the Dutch value study, it was listed as enjoyment.

The Rokeach values "self-respect" and "self-esteem" are related to the concept of "self" of an individualistic culture. Self-respect (jicho) in Japan means restraint, which is the opposite of the American value, which includes values like character, reputation, and prestige. A major dimension of Japanese self-esteem relates to reflecting well on the family and work group through high performance, thus gaining their respect. Indians' inner feelings of esteem are deeply tied up with family reputation.

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